1	CLAST English Skills Grammar and Usage
2	Getting Started This presentation is designed to explain the basic principles covered in the English skills section of the CLAST. It is also intended to familiarize you with the structure of the exam itself.
3	Take a Practice Test Take a practice test (in your study guide) Score your exam with the key. Read the explanations provided with each answer as well. Do you see any patterns forming with regard to the questions you missed? If so, these are the skills on which you want to focus.
4	CLAST English Test Taking Tips The English section of the CLAST exam does not test your reading comprehension Any error contained in a passage is an error in grammar, mechanics, or usage There is no need to read the lengthy passages of the English section Bear in mind that this applies only to the English sections. You will fail the reading section if you do not read the passages.
5	More Test Taking Tips Do not eliminate an answer choice unless you have a good reason. The fact that an answer choice does not look good or sound good is not sufficient reason for deletion. Physically draw a line through any answer choice you delete. Go with your first response and do not change it unless you realize you have misread the question.
6	Sentence Structure Skills Complete any practice questions. You should understand: The difference between independent and dependent clauses The methods to connect two independent clauses The definitions of fragments, comma splices, and run-ons
7	Clauses Any group of words which contains a subject and a verb is a clause. There are two types of clauses: Independent Dependent
8	Independent Clauses Not all clauses are sentences. Only those that express a complete thought are sentences. This type of clause is called an independent clause.
9	Dependent Clauses A clause that contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought is called a dependent clause. It is called dependent because it relies on an independent clause to express a complete thought.
10	Sentence Structure Errors Major sentence structure errors occur when you do not know the rules associated with the two types of clauses. The errors include: Fragments Comma Splices Run-Ons
11	Fragments A fragment occurs when a phrase is punctuated as though it were a complete sentence. There are two types of fragments: A phrase that is missing a subject, a verb, or both A dependent clause that is not linked to an independent clause
12	Dependent Clause Fragments Dependent clauses contain both a subject and a verb. They do not, however, express a complete thought since they are preceded by subordinating conjunctions such as although, when, if, unless, because or relative pronouns such as who, whom, which, that
13	Punctuating Dependent Clauses If the dependent clause (DC) precedes the independent clause (IC), place a comma after the dependent clause. DC, IC However, if the independent clause comes first, no comma is used. IC DC
14	Linking Independent Clauses Frequently you will need to link two independent clauses together. You can do this in one of the following ways: IC. IC IC, coordinating conjunction IC IC; IC IC; transitional word, IC
15	Comma Splices and Run-Ons If you do not use one of the previously listed methods, you will have a sentence structure error. IC, IC -- two independent clauses with a comma between them is called a comma splice IC IC -- two independent clauses with no punctuation between them is called a run-on sentence
16	A Test Taking Tip The CLAST does not have a section which explicitly tests clauses, fragments, comma splices and run-ons. It is vital that you understand the concept of clauses, be able to recognize errors, and know how to correct the errors. Your ability to apply these concepts is tested throughout the exam.
17	Self Study One Some of your preparation for the CLAST test may require more long-term preparation than a simple refresher on grammar. Review word pairs and study those that are troublesome Review spelling Review parts of speech
18	Modifiers All modifiers must modify something. Modifiers that do not have anything to modify are called dangling modifiers. All modifiers must be placed as close as possible to what they modify. Those that are not as close as possible to what they modify are called misplaced modifiers.
19	Coordination and Subordination Coordination means that ideas, or parts of speech of equal importance, are joined by the coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so Remember fanboys!
20	A word about fanboys Remember that each coordinating conjunction has a definition and expresses a particular type of relationship. for -- cause and -- addition nor/or -- alternative but/yet -- contrast so -- effect
21	Subordination Subordination means that an idea of lesser importance is joined to another. The subordinate idea is often contained in a dependent clause.
22	Dependent Clauses Dependent clauses have both a subject and a verb, but do not express a complete thought. There are two types of dependent clauses: those that begin with subordinating conjunctions: although, when, until, since, because, if those that begin with relative pronouns: who, whom, which, that
23	Parallelism Parallelism means that when you join two or more elements in a single clause, you use the same structure. Examples include words ending in ing or ed infinitives adjectives nouns
24	Self Study Two Review words which are often confused its, it’s their, there, they’re Practice all the skills we have reviewed Review verb forms
25	Agreement Agreement is defined as the correspondence between number, gender, and person. Types of agreement include: Subject/Verb Pronoun/Antecedent
26	Subject/Verb Agreement (SVA) Subject /Verb agreement means that singular subjects take singular verbs and plural subjects take plural verbs. Agreement does not mean that the endings will be the same. In fact, just the opposite may be true. Present tense singular verbs end in s.
27	Tips on SVA Whenever you are presented with a verb choice change on the CLAST, you should check for Subject/Verb Agreement. Make certain that you correctly and completely identify the subject. The noun closest to the verb is not necessarily the subject of the sentence.
28	Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement Pronouns replace nouns. Pronouns always refer back to a noun. The noun to which they refer is called an antecedent. Pronouns and their antecedents must agree in number and case.
29	More on Pronouns and Antecedents You do not usually think about a noun as being singular or plural. Neither do you consider that it is functioning as a subject, object, or possessive. With pronouns, these are important considerations!
30	Adjectives Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. Adjectives should be placed as close as possible to the noun or pronoun they modify. Adjectives typically answer the questions Which one? What kind? How many?
31	Adverbs Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Many adverbs end in ly Adverbs answer the questions When? To what extent? Where? How?
32	Logical Comparisons As with parallelism, making comparisons with adjectives and adverbs requires consistency in the use of forms. Determine the correct form and use that form throughout your comparison.
33	Self Study Three Complete a full length practice test. Score your test and review the explanations. List problem areas on which you still need to concentrate.
34	Punctuation Semicolons The CLAST loves to test your ability to use a semicolon. Semicolons have two uses: to link two closely related independent clauses to separate items in a series which already contains commas
35	Colons and Apostrophes Colons can be used to precede a list or link two independent clauses together. With rare exceptions. Apostrophes show possession by adding ‘s are used in a contraction in place of missing letters
36	Commas Commas set off introductory elements in a sentence separate items in a series set off non-essential information that interrupts the flow of a sentence Bob, who is a lawyer, fights for justice. link two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction. Bob is a lawyer, and his wife is a judge.
37	Capitalization Capitalize the beginning of a sentence all proper nouns and adjectives titles of address (Dr. Ms. Mr. Mrs.) Note: English is always capitalized Seasons are capitalized only if they are the first word in a sentence.
38	Quotation Marks Use quotation marks to indicate a person’s exact words indicate that a piece of work is an article an essay a poem a short story
39	Practice Exams Now complete and review the any practice tests. You should, at this point, see a marked improvement in your score.
40	Things to Remember Give yourself adequate preparation time for the CLAST. Being prepared to succeed on the exam means understanding both the content and the format of the exam. Such preparation takes time and practice. Keep in mind the test taking strategies. Practice and use them. They will help you!